Somalia’s Foreign Relations in the Context of the Latest Offensive Against Al Shabaab

Authors

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.59569/jceeas.2023.3.4.269

Keywords:

Al Shabaab, MENA Region, Islamic State, Somalia, Terrorism

Abstract

The political and military weight of clans, foreign interventions, the relations between the local, provincial and federal levels, the strength of the national idea and attachment to political islam have historically been determining factors behind either success or failure of state policy in Somalia. 2021 was an annus horribilis in Somalia's annals, marked by an electoral crisis, mutiny, tensions between the president and prime minister, a conflict between the federal state and Puntland, the departure of the last American soldiers, intensifying crisis with Kenya and Djibouti and attacks of the capital by al Shabaab, which are on the offensive since 2019. 2022 however saw the stars aligning for the strengthening of the state and the recovering of Somalian sovereignty: election of president Hassan Sheikh Mohamud, nomination of PM Hamza Amdi Barre, appeasement of the wars in Tigray and Yemen, setting of ATMIS to give the former AMISOM a clear mandate to support the Somali Transition Plan. Despite the new president's willingness to address the Shabaab menace not only militarily but ideologically, calls for dialogue and the appointing of a Shabaab co-founder as religion minister, 2022 also saw the deadliest engagements ever recorded by NGO ACLED in the country during an offensive that seemed to gain momentum in the second half of the year with the support of ATMIS and other foreign partners. This paper therefore aims to explore the new paradigms behind Somalia's foreign relations under her new leadership, to evaluate how much they help or hinder Somalia's war effort against al Shabaab and state consolidation and to explore possible scenarii in the near future.

References

Abdullahi, A. M. (2012) ‘Meeting Summary: Islamism and Politics in Somalia’, Chatham House, 12 June. Available at https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/public/Research/Africa/120612summary.pdf (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

ACLED (2023a) ‘Heightened Political Violence in Somalia’, ACLED, 3 March. Available at https://acleddata.com/2023/03/03/context-assessment-heightened-political-violence-in-somalia/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

ACLED (2023b) ‘Kenya: Al-Shabaab Attacks Surge Ahead of Somalia-Kenya Border Reopening’, ACLED, 7 July. Available at https://acleddata.com/2023/07/07/kenya-situation-update-july-2023-al-shabaab-attacks-surge-ahead-of-somalia-kenya-border-reopening/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

ACLED (2023c) ‘Somalia: Political Turmoil Threatens the Fight Against Al-Shabaab’, ACLED, 30 June. Available at https://acleddata.com/2023/06/30/somalia-situation-update-june-2023-political-turmoil-threatens-the-fight-against-al-shabaab/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Addis Getachews (2022) ‘Ethiopia, Somalia Eye Shift from Military to Economic Cooperation: Abiy Ahmed, Hassan Sheikh Mahmoud Hold Talks as Somali President Makes 1st Trip to Ethiopia’, Anadolu Agency, 28 September. Available at https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/ethiopia-somalia-eye-shift-from-military-to-economic-cooperation/2697550 (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Addis Standard (2022a) ‘News: Ethiopia Disavows State Media Report Doubting Somalia President for “Strong Relationship with TPLF”’, Addis Standard, 8 September. Available at https://addisstandard.com/news-ethiopia-disavows-state-media-report-doubting-somalia-president-for-strong-relationship-with-tplf/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Addis Standard (2022b) ‘News: Puntland President Meets Senior Ethiopian Army Officers, Discuss Cooperation Against Al-Shabaab’, Addis Standard, 23 August. Available at https://addisstandard.com/news-puntland-president-meets-senior-ethiopian-army-officers-discuss-cooperation-against-al-shabaab/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Africa Intelligence (2023) ‘Somalia: Former President Farmajo and His inner Circle Set up Home in Qatar’, Africa Intelligence, 14 March. Available at https://www.africaintelligence.com/eastern-africa-and-the-horn/2023/03/14/former-president-farmajo-and-his-inner-circle-set-up-home-in-qatar,109923321-art (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

AfricaNews (2019) ‘UAE to Train Somaliland Forces under Military Base Deal’, AfricaNews, 9 December. Available at https://www.africanews.com/2018/03/16/uae-to-train-somaliland-forces-under-military-base-deal/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Ahmed, M. O. (2022) ‘Devastating Drought to Push Somalia’s Inflation to Near Double Digits’, Bloomberg, 29 June. Available at https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-06-29/drought-seen-spurring-somalia-s-inflation-to-near-double-digits (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Ahmed, M. O. and Marks, S. (2022) ‘Deep-Water Somali Port Gives Landlocked Ethiopia New Trade Route’, Bloomberg, 9 September. Available at https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-09-09/deep-water-somali-port-gives-landlocked-ethiopia-new-trade-route (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Airwars (n. d.) ‘US Forces in Somalia’, Airwars. Available at https://airwars.org/conflict/us-forces-in-somalia/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Al Arabiya News (2023) ‘Eastern African Bloc Meets on Sudan, Seeks Summit to Deploy Regional Force in Country’, Al Arabiya News, 10 July. Available at https://english.alarabiya.net/News/middle-east/2023/07/10/Eastern-African-bloc-meets-on-Sudan-seeks-summit-to-deploy-regional-force-in-country (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

allArica (2021) Somalia: Qatar Calls for Probe Over Alleged Involvement of Somali Army in Tigray War’, allAfrica, 29 January. Available at https://allafrica.com/stories/202101300079.html (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Al Jazeera (2018a) ‘Somalia Calls for UN Action against UAE Base in Berbera’, Al Jazeera, 27 March. Available at https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/3/27/somalia-calls-for-un-action-against-uae-base-in-berbera (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Al Jazeera (2018b) ‘Somalia Seizes $9.6m from UAE Plane in Mogadishu, Al Jazeera, 9 April. Available at https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/4/9/somalia-seizes-9-6m-from-uae-plane-in-mogadishu (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Al Jazeera (2018c) ‘UAE Violating Somalia Arms Embargo: Report’, Al Jazeera, 11 October. Available at https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/10/11/uae-violating-somalia-arms-embargo-report/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Al Jazeera (2020) ‘Somalia Cuts Diplomatic Ties with Kenya Citing Interference, Al Jazeera, 15 December. Available at https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/12/15/somalia-cuts-diplomatic-ties-with-kenya-citing-interferences (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Al Jazeera (2021) ‘Somalia Restoring Ties with Kenya after Nearly Six Months’, Al Jazeera, 6 May. Available at https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/5/6/somalia-restoring-ties-with-kenya-after-nearly-six-months (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Al Jazeera (2023a) ‘Eritrea rejoins East Africa bloc after exit 16 years ago’, Al Jazeera, 13 June. Available at https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/6/13/eritrea-rejoins-east-africa-bloc-after-exit-16-years-ago (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Al Jazeera (2023b) ‘Ethiopia Says It Foiled al-Shabab Attack Near Border with Somalia’, Al Jazeera, 7 June. Available at https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/6/7/ethiopia-says-it-foiled-al-shabab-attack-near-border-with-somalia (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Ali, M. (2022) ‘Hassan Sheikh Mohamud: Who is Somalia's New Leader?’, BBC, 16 May. Available at https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-19556383 (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

ATMIS (n. d.) ‘Military Component’, ATMIS. Available at https://atmis-au.org/military-component/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

AzerNews (2023) ‘Market Prices in Somalia Rise after Black Sea Grain Deal Terminated’, AzerNews, 7 August. Available at https://www.azernews.az/region/213256.html (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Arab News (2023a) ‘Saudi Aid Projects Benefit Somalia, Sudan, Afghanistan, Yemen’, Arab News, 20 June. Available at https://www.arabnews.com/node/2324586/saudi-arabia (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Arab News (2023b) ‘Saudi, Somali Defense Ministers Discuss Ties’, Arab News, 8 June. Available at https://www.arabnews.com/node/2317831/saudi-arabia (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Babb, C. (2017) ‘US Suspends Aid to Much of Somali Military’, VOA, 15 December. Available at https://www.voanews.com/a/us-suspends-aid-somali-military/4164892.html (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Bahadur, J. (2021) ‘An Iranian Fingerprint: Tracing Type 56-1 Assault Rifles in Somalia’, Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime, November. Available at https://globalinitiative.net/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/GITOC-An-Iranian-Fingerprint-Tracing-Type-56-1-assault-rifles-in-Somalia.pdf (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Bamberger, J. G. and Skovsted, K. (2016) ‘Concessions and Conflicts: Mapping Oil Exploration in Somalia and Ethiopia’, DISS Working Paper, 2. Copenhagen: Danish Institute for International Studies. ISBN 978-87-7605-820-3. Available at https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/148180/1/864002726.pdf (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Barigaba, J. (2023) ‘Uganda Sends Land Forces Chief to Somalia After Deadly Attack on Troops’, The EastAfrican, 27 March. Available at https://theeastafrican.co.ke/tea/news/east-africa/uganda-sends-army-chief-to-somalia-after-deadly-raid-on-troops-4249098 (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

BBC (2016) ‘Somalia Imposes Kenyan Khat Import Ban’, BBC, 6 September. Available at https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-37285705 (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Bearak, M. (2019) ‘In Strategic Djibouti, a Microcosm of China’s Growing Foothold in Africa’, The Washington Post, December 30. Available at https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/in-strategic-djibouti-a-microcosm-of-chinas-growing-foothold-in-africa/2019/12/29/a6e664ea-beab-11e9-a8b0-7ed8a0d5dc5d_story.html (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Berg, W. v. d. and Meester, J. (2019) Turkey in the Horn of Africa: Between the Ankara Consensus and the Gulf Crisis. Clingendael: Netherlands Institute of International Relations. Available at https://www.clingendael.org/sites/default/files/2019-05/PB_Turkey_in_the_Horn_of_Africa_May_2019.pdf (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Besenyő, J. (2023). Turkey’s Growing Interest in the African Continent’, Journal of Central and Eastern European African Studies, 1(1-2), pp. 70–89. DOI: https://doi.org/10.59569/jceeas.2021.1.1-2.4, ISSN 2786-1902

Bishku, M. B. (2019) ‘The Muslim Middle East and Northeast Africa: The Interaction of Geopolitics, Economic Interests, and Regional Rivalry’, Journal of Global South Studies, 36(1), pp. 1-22. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/gss.2019.0002, ISSN 2476-1397

Bozkurt, A. (2023) ‘UN Says Turkey Violated Arms Embargo by Sending Drones to Somalia’, Nordic Monitor, 26 April. Available at https://nordicmonitor.com/2023/04/un-says-turkey-breached-arms-embargo-by-sending-drones-to-somalia/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Brenton, P. and Edjigu, H. (2021) ‘A Review of Cross-Border Trade in the Horn of Africa’, Horn of Africa Regional Economic Memorandum Background Paper, 3. World Bank. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1596/36496. Available at https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/574271634241813677/pdf/A-Review-of-Cross-Border-Trade-in-the-Horn-of-Africa.pdf (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Business Daily (2022) ‘Kenya Fails to Strike Oil in Area Claimed by Somalia’, The EastAfrican, 7 October. Available at https://theeastafrican.co.ke/tea/news/east-africa/kenya-fails-to-strike-oil-in-area-claimed-by-somalia-3976364 (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Campbell, H. (2021) ‘The Quagmire of US Militarism in Africa’, Africa Development / Afrique et Développement, 45(1), pp. 73-116. DOI: https://doi.org/10.57054/ad.v45i1.653, ISSN 0850 3907

Cannon, B. J. and Donelli, F. (2021) ‘Somalia’s Electoral Impasse and the Role of Middle East States’, ISPI, 7 May. Available at https://www.ispionline.it/en/publication/somalias-electoral-impasse-and-role-middle-east-states-30365 (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Castagno, A. A. (1964) ‘The Somali-Kenyan Controversy: Implications for the Future’, The Journal of Modern African Studies, 2(2), pp. 165-188. ISSN 0022-278X

Climate Change Knowledge Portal (2021) Somalia. Available at: https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/country/somalia (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Cooper, H. (2020) ‘Trump Orders All American Troops Out of Somalia’, The New York Times, 4 December. Available at https://www.nytimes.com/2020/12/04/world/africa/trump-somalia-troop-withdrawal.html (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Cordesman, A. H. (2017) ‘Reinforcing Failure: The Revised Executive Order Protecting the Nation from Foreign Terrorist Entry into the United States’, CSIS, 7 March. Available at https://www.csis.org/analysis/reinforcing-failure-revised-executive-order-protecting-nation-foreign-terrorist-entry (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Council of the European Union (2022) ‘Operation ATALANTA, EUTM Somalia and EUCAP Somalia: Mandates Extended for Two Years’, Council of the European Union, 12 December. Available at https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2022/12/12/operation-atalanta-eutm-somalia-and-eucap-somalia-mandates-extended-for-two-years/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

CSIS (2022) ‘Strengthening Somalia’s Security: A Conversation with H.E. President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud’, CSIS, 16 September. Available at https://www.csis.org/events/strengthening-somalias-security-conversation-he-president-hassan-sheikh-mohamud (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Davies, L. (2023) ‘UK Funding Cuts to east Africa

“Insulting and Shortsighted”, Say Aid Organisations’, The Guardian, 24 May. Available at https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2023/may/24/uk-funding-cuts-to-east-africa-insulting-and-shortsighted-say-aid-organisations (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Dhaysane, M. (2022a) ‘Amid Detente, Somalia, Kenya Restart Lucrative Khat Trade After 2-Year Break’, Anadolu Agency, 24 July. Available at https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/amid-detente-somalia-kenya-restart-lucrative-khat-trade-after-2-year-break/2644837 (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Dhaysane, M. (2022b) ‘Somalia Experts: Ending al-Shabab’s Funding a Major Challenge’, VOA News, 8 July. Available at https://www.voanews.com/a/somalia-experts-ending-al-shabab-s-funding-a-major-challenge/6650517.html (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Dhaysane, M. (2022c) ‘Somalia Supports China Amid Rising Tensions on Taiwan’, Anadolu Agency, 8 August. Available at https://www.aa.com.tr/en/politics/somalia-supports-china-amid-rising-tensions-on-taiwan/2655345 (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Dhaysane, M. (2022d) ‘US Donates Military Vehicles to AU Troops in Somalia’, VOA News, 4 August. Available at https://www.voanews.com/a/us-donates-military-vehicles-to-au-troops-in-somalia-/6686742.html (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Dhaysane, M. (2023) ‘Somalia, UAE Strike Security Deal in Push to Mend Fences’, Anadolu Agency, 5 January. Available at https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/somalia-uae-strike-security-deal-in-push-to-mend-fences/2780549 (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Dogan-Akkas, B. (2021) ‘The UAE’s Foreign Policymaking in Yemen: From Bandwagoning to Buck-Passing’, Third World Quaterly, 45(4), pp. 717-735. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2020.1842730, ISSN 0143-6597

ECDPM (2023) ‘New Hopes for Somalia: Reflections on the EU’s Continued Support in a Fragile Context’, ECDPM, 22 June. Available at https://ecdpm.org/work/new-hopes-somalia-reflections-eus-continued-support-fragile-context (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in the Federal Republic of Somalia (2019) ‘H.E.Mr. Qin Jian, Chinese Ambassador in Somalia Interviewed by the Somali National News Agency’, Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in the Federal Republic of Somalia, 15 April. Available at http://so.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zsgx_1/201904/t20190415_7201215.htm (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Ethiopia Insight (2023) ‘Ethiopia Faceoff Over Las Anod Jeopardizes Regional Cooperation’, Ethiopia Insight, 20 March. Available at https://www.ethiopia-insight.com/2023/03/20/somaliland-and-ethiopia-faceoff-over-las-anod-jeopardizes-regional-cooperation/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Fan ABC (2022) ‘Ethiopia, Somalia Information and Security Institutions Ink Agreement to Jointly Combat Terrorism’, Fan ABC, 11 November. Available at https://www.fanabc.com/english/ethiopia-somalia-information-and-security-institutions-ink-agreement-to-jointly-combat-terrorism/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

France 24 (2016) ‘Crisis Looms as Kenya Forces Refugees to Return to War-Torn Somalia’, France 24, 10 October. Available at https://www.france24.com/en/20161010-kenya-forcibly-somalia-returning-refugees-war-torn-human-rights-group (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Gardner, T. (2023) ‘Inside Villa Somalia: 72 Hours with the President of “The Most Dangerous Country in the World”’, The Guardian, 3 February. Available at https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/feb/03/hassan-sheikh-mohamud-interview-somalia (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Garowe Online (2014) ‘Somalia: UAE Pledges Support for Jubaland Landmine Explosion Reported’, Garowe Online, 21 August. Available at https://garoweonline.com/en/news/somalia/somalia-uae-pledges-support-for-jubaland-landmine-explosion-reported (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Garowe Online (2016) ‘Somalia Restarts Direct Flights to Nairobi’, Garowe Online, 29 March. Available at https://garoweonline.com/en/news/somalia/somalia-restarts-direct-flights-to-nairobi (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Garowe Online (2022a) ‘Somalia: UAE Soldier Secretly Land in Puntland’, Garowe Online, 8 November. Available at https://garoweonline.com/en/news/puntland/somalia-uae-soldiers-secretly-land-in-puntland (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Garowe Online (2022b) ‘Somalia: Why Did It Take so Long for Farmajo to Admit to Eritrea Training, Garowe Online, 23 May. Available at https://garoweonline.com/en/news/somalia/somalia-why-did-it-take-so-long-for-farmajo-to-admit-to-eritrea-training (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Garowe Online Staff Reporter (2018) ‘Somalia: UAE Confirms to Continue Supporting Puntland Troops’, Garowe Online, 14 April. Available at https://garoweonline.com/en/news/puntland/somalia-uae-confirms-to-continue-supporting-puntland-troops (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Garowe Online Staff Reporter (2020) ‘UAE Cancels Construction of Military Base in Somaliland’, Garowe Online, 4 March. Available at https://garoweonline.com/en/news/somaliland/uae-cancels-construction-of-military-base-in-somaliland (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Garowe Online Staff Reporter (2021) ‘Ex-Spy Chief Claims Hundreds of Somali Soldiers Killed in Tigray Region’, Garowe Online, 18 January. Available at https://garoweonline.com/en/news/somalia/ex-spy-chief-claims-hundreds-of-somali-soldiers-killed-in-tigray-region (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Garowe Online Staff Reporter (2022a) ‘Somalia-Kenya Relations: Inside Hassan Sheikh’s Meeting with Ruto in Nairobi’, Garowe Online, 14 September. Available at https://garoweonline.com/en/world/africa/somalia-kenya-relations-inside-hassan-sheikh-s-meeting-with-ruto-in-nairobi (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Garowe Online Staff Reporter (2022b) ‘UK Back’s Somalia’s War against al-Shabaab’, Garowe Online, 11 October. Available at https://garoweonline.com/en/news/somalia/uk-backs-somalia-s-war-against-al-shabaab (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Garowe Online Staff Reporter (2022c) ‘US Military’s Role in Ongoing Gains against al-Shabaab in Somalia’, Garowe Online, 20 September. Available at https://garoweonline.com/en/news/somalia/us-military-s-role-in-ongoing-gains-against-al-shabaab-in-somalia (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Garowe Online Staff Reporter (2023a) ‘Advisor: Eritrean-Trained Somali Soldiers Did Not Cross Over to Tigray’, Garowe Online, 2 February. Available at https://garoweonline.com/en/news/somalia/advisor-eritrean-trained-somali-soldiers-did-not-cross-over-to-tigray (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Garowe Online Staff Reporter (2023b) ‘Djibuti Pledges to Support Somalia in Al-Shabaab War’, Garowe Online, 9 April. Available at https://garoweonline.com/en/news/somalia/djibouti-pledges-to-support-somalia-in-al-shabaab-war (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Garowe Online Staff Reporter (2023c) ‘Somalia: Djibuti Denies Links to Mass Murders in Las Anod’, Garowe Online, 15 February. Available at https://garoweonline.com/en/world/africa/somalia-djibouti-denies-links-to-mass-murders-in-las-anod (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Garowe Online Staff Reporter (2023d) ‘Somalia to Mediate Sudan Conflict’, Garowe Online, 2 February. Available at https://garoweonline.com/en/news/somalia/somalia-to-mediate-sudanese-conflict (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Garowe Online Staff Reporter (2023e) ‘Somalia: UAE-Funded Elite Puntland Forces Mix with Brewing Political Tension’, Garowe Online, 5 February. Available at https://garoweonline.com/en/news/puntland/somalia-uae-trained-elite-puntland-forces-mix-with-brewing-political-tension (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Garowe Online Staff Reporter (2023f) ‘Somaliland Accuses UAE-trained Soldier of Invasion in Las Anod’, Garowe Online, 6 July. Available at https://garoweonline.com/en/news/somaliland/somaliland-accuses-uae-trained-soldiers-of-invasion-in-las-anod (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Gedi, N. G. (2023) ‘Somalia Raises $5M to Support Quake-hit Türkiye: Justice Minister’, Anadolu Agency, 8 March. Available at https://garoweonline.com/en/news/somaliland/somaliland-accuses-uae-trained-soldiers-of-invasion-in-las-anod (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

General Assembly of the United Nations (2014) Resolution A/RES/68/262. Available at https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/767565?ln=en (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

General Assembly of the United Nations (2022a) Resolution A/RES/ES-11/1. Available at https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3959039 (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

General Assembly of the United Nations (2022b) Resolution A/RES/ES-11/2. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3965954?ln=en (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

General Assembly of the United Nations (2022c) Resolution A/RES/ES-11/3. Available at https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3967778?ln=en (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

General Assembly of the United Nations (2022d) Resolution A/RES/ES-11/4. Available at https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3990400?ln=en (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

General Assembly of the United Nations (2022e) Resolution A/RES/ES-11/5. Available at https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3994052?ln=en (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

General Assembly of the United Nations (2023) Resolution A/RES/ES-11/6. Available at https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/4003921?ln=en (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Gesami, B. and Kasembeli G. (2021) ‘The East African Maritime Domain Dispute: The Case of Kenya and Somalia’, Academia Letters, DOI: https://doi.org/10.20935/AL3866, ISSN 2771-9359

Getachew, A. (2022) ‘Ukraine Pledges 50,000 Tons of Wheat in Humanitarian Aid for Ethiopia, Somalia’, Anadolu Agency, 22 September. Available at https://www.aa.com.tr/en/russia-ukraine-war/ukraine-pledges-50-000-tons-of-wheat-in-humanitarian-aid-for-ethiopia-somalia/2692484 (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Global Construction Review Staff (2020) ‘Anglo-Turkish Consortium Signs Deal to Build and Operate Somalia’s Hobyo Port’, Global Construction Review Staff, 5 November. Available at https://www.globalconstructionreview.com/anglo-turkish-consortium-signs-deal-build-and-oper/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Gotteland, M. (2022) ‘La Somalie, un pays instable face aux défis sécuritaires’, IPSA, 27 October. Available at https://www.ipsa-afrique.org/la-somalie-un-pays-instable-face-aux-defis-securitaires/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Gotteland, M. (2023a) ‘La guerre au Soudan: Forces profondes, causes immédiates et perspectives’, IPSA, 14 May. Available at https://www.ipsa-afrique.org/la-guerre-au-soudan-forces-profondes-causes-immediates-et-perspectives/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Gotteland, M. (2023b) ‘La stratégie française en Afrique: état des lieux et défis’, IPSA, 22 March. Available at https://www.ipsa-afrique.org/la-strategie-francaise-en-afrique-etat-des-lieux-et-defis/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Gros-Verheyde, N. (2022) ‘Un Portugais aux commandes d’Atalanta au large de la Somalie. Avec des moyens limités’, Bruxelles2, 17 January. Available at https://www.bruxelles2.eu/2022/01/un-portugais-aux-commandes-datalanta-au-large-de-la-somalie-avec-des-moyens-limites/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Gulf Times (2023) ‘Qatar, Somalia Share Fraternal Bonds’, Gulf Times, 17 May. Available at https://www.gulf-times.com/article/661200/qatar/qatar-somalia-share-fraternal-bonds (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Harb, I. K. (2023) ‘Somalia Continues to Face Crises on Several Fronts in 2023’, Arab Center Washington DC, 10 January. Available at https://arabcenterdc.org/resource/somalia-continues-to-face-crises-on-several-fronts-in-2023/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Harding, A. (2022) ‘Fighting al-Shabab: Rare Access to Somalia's US-Funded “Lightning” Brigade’, BBC, 23 November. Available at https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-63704004 (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Hassan, M. O. (2022) ‘Somalia Releases Nearly $10M Seized from UAE Plane Four Years Ago’, VOA, 19 May. Available at https://www.voanews.com/a/somalia-releases-nearly-10m-seized-from-uae-plane-four-years-ago/6580817.html (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Hassan, M. O. (2023) ‘Somalia's Hope for Debt Relief Under Threat, Experts Warn’, VOA, 12 May. Available at https://www.voanews.com/a/somalia-s-hope-for-debt-relief-under-threat-experts-warn-/7090405.html (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Hawilti Desk (2021) ‘Berbera International Airport Officially Opens after Successful Renovation by the UAE’, Hawilti, 20 November. Available at https://hawilti.com/infrastructure/aviation/berbera-international-airport-officially-opens-after-successful-renovation-by-the-uae/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Henry, J. (2016) ‘China's Military Deployments in the Gulf of Aden: Anti-Piracy and Beyond’, Notes de l’IFRI, 89. ISBN 978-2-36567-648-9. Available at https://www.ifri.org/sites/default/files/atoms/files/chinas_military_deployments_in_the_gulf_of_aden_anti-piracy_and_beyond_0.pdf (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Hiraan Online (2022) ‘Southwest State President Laftagareen lands in Jigjiga for meeting with Somali Region President’, Hiraan Online, 8 August. Available at https://hiiraan.com/news4/2022/aug/187313/southwest_state_president_laftagareen_lands_in_jigjiga_for_meeting_with_somali_region_president.aspx (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Hiraan Online (2023a) ‘Ethiopian Military Delegation Arrives in Somalia to Prepare for Joint Offensive Against Al-Shabaab’, Hiraan Online, 26 March. Available at https://hiiraan.com/news4/2023/Mar/190508/ethiopian_military_delegation_arrives_in_somalia_to_prepare_for_joint_offensive_against_al_shabaab.aspx?utm_source=hiiraan&utm_medium=SomaliNewsUpdateFront (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Hiraan Online (2023b) ‘Somalia’s neighbours commit to send more than 30,000 additional troops to combat Al-Shabaab’, Hiraan Online, 2 March. Available at https://hiiraan.com/news4/2023/Mar/190155/somalia_s_neighbours_commit_to_send_30_000_additional_troops_to_combat_al_shabaab.aspx (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Horn Observer (2023a) ‘Ethiopian PM Abiy Ahmed Unveils Plans to Secure Port Access by Negotiation or by Force’, Horn Observer, 23 July. Available at https://hornobserver.com/articles/2359/Ethiopian-PM-Abiy-Ahmed-unveils-plans-to-secure-port-access-by-negotiation-or-by-force (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Horn Observer (2023b) ‘Somalia’s Dubious Rush to Russia for Weapons Amid Ukraine Invasion’, Horn Observer, 28 May. Available at https://hornobserver.com/articles/2224/Somalias-dubious-rush-to-Russia-for-weapons-amid-Ukraine-invasion (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Ingris, M. H. (2022) ‘Alarm Bells as Somalia’s New President Sours Relationship with Ethiopia’, The Conversation, 21 August. Available at https://theconversation.com/alarm-bells-as-somalias-new-president-sours-relationship-with-ethiopia-188667 (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

International Court of Justice (n. d.) Maritime Delimitation in the Indian Ocean (Somalia v. Kenya). Available at https://icj-cij.org/case/161 (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Ismail, M. (2023) ‘Ethiopia’s Abiy May Have Opened the Door to al-Shabaab’, Ethiopia Insight, 23 June. Available at https://www.ethiopia-insight.com/2023/06/23/ethiopias-abiy-may-have-opened-the-door-to-al-shabaab/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Kandil, A. M. (2022) ‘Egyptian, Somali Presidents Affirm Need to Reach Binding Deal on GERD without Delay’, Egypt Today, 25 July. Available at https://www.egypttoday.com/Article/1/117860/Egyptian-Somali-presidents-affirm-need-to-reach-binding-deal-on (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Kenez, L. (2022) ‘Turkey Cements Military Ties with Somalia, Has Already Trained One-Third of Its Army’, Nordic Monitor, 30 August. Available at https://nordicmonitor.com/2022/08/turkey-cements-military-ties-with-somalia-already-trained-one-third-of-the-army/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Khalif, A. (2023) ‘Maritime Dispute: Somalia Rejects Mediation “Offer”’, The EastAfrican, 25 July. Available at https://theeastafrican.co.ke/tea/news/east-africa/maritime-dispute-somalia-rejects-mediation-offer-4315018 (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Kipkemoi, F. (2023) ‘Kenya, Somalia Sign Bilateral Air Services Agreement’, The Star, 9 August. Available at https://www.the-star.co.ke/news/2023-08-09-kenya-somalia-sign-bilateral-air-services-agreement/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Macaulay, C. (2023) ‘Bilal al-Sudani: US Forces Kill Islamic State Somalia Leader in Cave Complex’, BBC, 27 January. Avaiable at https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-64423598 (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Mahmoud, K. (2023) ‘Somali President Accuses Iran of Implementing “Subversive Agenda” Through Humanitarian Efforts’, Asharq Al-Awsat, 25 January. Available at https://english.aawsat.com/home/article/4117936/somali-president-accuses-iran-implementing-%E2%80%98subversive-agenda%E2%80%99-through (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Malito, D. (2021) ‘The Endless US War on Terror in Somalia’, ISPI, 7 May. Available at https://www.ispionline.it/en/publication/endless-us-war-terror-somalia-30359 (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Marples, D. R. (2009) ‘Ethnic Issues in the Famine of 1932–1933 in Ukraine’, Europe-Asia Studies, 61(3), pp. 508-518. DOI https://doi.org/10.1080/09668130902753325, ISSN 0966-8136

Marples, D. R., Baidaus, E., and Melentyeva, M. (2014) ‘Causes of the 1932 Famine in Soviet Ukraine: Debates at the Third All-Ukrainian Party Conference’, Canadian Slavonic Papers / Revue Canadienne des Slavistes, 56(3/4), pp. 291-312. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00085006.2014.11417930, ISSN 0008-5006

Maruf, H. (2022a) ‘Al-Shabab Faces Pushback in Ethiopia’s Somali Region’, VOA News, 9 August. Available at https://www.voanews.com/a/al-shabab-faces-pushback-in-ethiopia-s-somali-region-/6695040.html%20 (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Maruf, H. (2022b) ‘Eritrea, Somalia Leaders Vow Cooperation on Defense, Political Efforts’, VOA News, 12 July. Available at https://www.voanews.com/a/eritrea-somalia-leaders-vow-cooperation-on-defense-political-efforts-/6656039.html (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Maruf, H. (2022c) ‘Exclusive: Somali Army Recruits Abroad for Training’, VOA News, 31 January. Available at https://www.voaafrica.com/a/exclusive-somali-army-recruits-abroad-for-training/6942213.html%20 (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Mayans, J. (2020) ‘The Sahel in the Midst of Climate Change’, ReliefWeb, 17 March. Available at https://reliefweb.int/report/chad/sahel-midst-climate-change (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Maystadt, J.-F. and Ecker, O. (2014) ‘Extreme Weather and Civil War: Does Drought Fuel Conflict in Somalia through Livestock Price Shocks?’, American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 96(4), pp. 1157-1182. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ajae/aau010, ISSN 0002-9092

Menon, S. (2022) ‘India Wheat Export Ban: Why It Matters to the World’, BBC, 6 June. Available at https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-61590756 (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Middle East Monitor (2017) ‘Somalia Turns Down $80m to Cut Ties with Qatar’, Middle East Monitor, 12 June. Available at https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20170612-somalia-turns-down-80m-to-cut-ties-with-qatar/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Middle East Monitor (2022a) ‘Ankara’s Joint Steps with Mogadishu Revitalised Somalia: Turkiye President, Middle East Monitor, 7 July. Available at https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20220707-ankaras-joint-steps-with-mogadishu-revitalised-somalia-turkiye-president/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Middle East Monitor (2022b) ‘UK Company to Explore for Oil in Somaliland’, Middle East Monitor, 30 December. Available at https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20221230-uk-company-to-explore-for-oil-in-somaliland/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Mukami, M. (2021) ‘Somalia Declares State of Emergency over Locusts’, Anadolu Agency, 4 February. Available at https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/somalia-declares-state-of-emergency-over-locusts/2133218 (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Mutambo, A. (2022) ‘Somalia Gets a Warm Reception in Its Quest to Join the EAC’, The EastAfrican, 23 July. Available at https://theeastafrican.co.ke/tea/news/east-africa/somalia-gets-a-warm-reception-in-its-quest-join-the-eac-3889434 (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Najimdeen, H. A. (2023) ‘Sudan’s Crisis and the Implications for Its Neighbours’, Al Jazeera Centre for Studies, 1 May. Available at https://studies.aljazeera.net/en/analyses/sudan%E2%80%99s-crisis-and-implications-its-neighbours (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

News Desk (2023) ‘UAE Deploys Military Vehicles to Jubaland, Plans to Open Base in the Region’, Halqabsi News, 23 March. Available at https://halqabsi.com/2023/03/uae-deploys-military-vehicles-to-jubaland-plans-to-open-base-in-the-region/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Nur, A. M. (2023) ‘Opinion – Somalis See an Intertwined Destiny with the Turkish People’, Anadolu Agency, 12 May. Available at https://www.aa.com.tr/en/analysis/opinion-somalis-see-an-intertwined-destiny-with-the-turkish-people/2895628# (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

OEC (2022) ‘China/Somalia’, OEC. Available at https://oec.world/en/profile/bilateral-country/chn/partner/som (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

OEC (2024) ‘Wheat in Somalia’, OEC, March. Available at https://oec.world/en/profile/bilateral-product/wheat/reporter/som (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Osborne, A. (2023) ‘Prigozhin Hails Niger Coup, Touts Wagner Services’, Reuters, 29 July. Available at https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/exiled-russian-mercenary-boss-prigozhin-hails-niger-coup-touts-services-2023-07-28/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Outlook Web Desk (2022) ‘Explained: Why Somalia Is Reluctant to Declare Famine despite Widespread Hunger and Starvation’, Outlook India, 22 November. Available at https://www.outlookindia.com/international/explained-somalia-suffers-starvation-and-hunger-but-why-has-the-govt-not-declared-famine--news-239231 (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Pascale, F. (2023) ‘Meloni Pushes forward “Mattei Plan” in Ethiopia Trip’, Euractive, 17 April. Available at https://www.euractiv.com/section/politics/news/meloni-pushes-forward-mattei-plan-in-ethiopia-trip/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Radio France Internationale (2021) ‘UN Report Says Somali Army Participated in Tigray War’, Radio France Internationale, 9 June. Available at https://www.rfi.fr/en/africa/20210609-un-report-says-somali-army-participated-in-tigray-war (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

ReliefWeb (2015) ‘UAE-Funded Military Training Centre Opened in Somalia’, ReliefWeb, 14 May. Available at https://reliefweb.int/report/somalia/uae-funded-military-training-centre-opened-somalia (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

ReliefWeb (2022) ‘Security Council Renews Sanctions Regime on Somalia, Mandate for Panel of Experts, Adopting Resolution 2662 (2022) by 11 Votes in Favour, 4 Abstentions’, ReliefWeb, 18 November. Available at https://reliefweb.int/report/somalia/security-council-renews-sanctions-regime-somalia-mandate-panel-experts-adopting-resolution-2662-2022-11-votes-favour-4-abstentions (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

ReliefWeb (2023a) ‘Somalia: 2023 Gu Rainfall Performance (As of 15th May 2023)’, ReliefWeb, 18 May. Available at https://reliefweb.int/map/somalia/somalia-2023-gu-rainfall-performance-15th-may-2023?gad_source=1&gclid=Cj0KCQjw6auyBhDzARIsALIo6v8immyRBp0x3LPtYLiFAsM74nwmX0AyzuWL0G1FDR6Xyg4tzN3yak0aAjLXEALw_wcB (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

ReliefWeb (2023b) ‘The US, UK and Qatar Launch Initiative to Continue Lifesaving Assistance to Somalia’, ReliefWeb, 2 June. Available at https://reliefweb.int/report/somalia/us-uk-and-qatar-launch-initiative-continue-lifesaving-assistance-somalia (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Reuters (2018) ‘UAE Ends Programme to Train Somalia’s Military’, Reuters, 16 April. Available at https://www.reuters.com/article/us-emirates-somalia-military-idUSKBN1HM0Y5/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Reuters (2022) ‘Somalia Repatriates Troops from Eritrea after Protests over Recruitment’, Reuters, 22 December. Available at https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/somalia-repatriates-troops-eritrea-after-protests-over-recruitment-2022-12-21/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Reuters (2023) ‘Somalia Says Russia Grants Relief on Debt Worth $684 Million’, Reuters, 27 July. Available at https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/somalia-says-russia-grants-relief-debt-worth-684-million-2023-07-27/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Reuters in Mogadishu (2023) ‘“The City Was Underwater”: Quarter of a Million Somalis flee Flooded Homes’, The Guardian, 17 May. Available at https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/may/17/city-underwater-quarter-of-million-somalians-flee-homes-floods (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Rédaction Africanews (2023a) ‘Uganda Says 54 of Its AU Soldiers Killed in May 26 Somalia Attack’, AfricaNews, 4 June. Available at https://www.africanews.com/2023/03/01/us-increases-military-support-for-somalia-against-al-shabab/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Rédaction Africanews (2023b) ‘US Increases Military Support for Somalia against al-Shabab’, AfricaNews, 1 March. Available at https://www.africanews.com/2023/03/01/us-increases-military-support-for-somalia-against-al-shabab/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Saudi Gazette (2022) ‘Saudi Arabia Wants to Push Relations with Somalia to New Horizons: Faisal Bin Farhan’, Saudi Gazette, 9 January. Available at https://saudigazette.com.sa/article/621585 (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Sauer, P. (2023) ‘Putin Promises Free Grain to Six African Nations after Collapse of Black Sea Deal’, The Guardian, 27 July. Available at https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jul/27/putin-promises-free-grain-to-six-african-nations-after-collapse-of-black-sea-deal (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Savage, C. and Schmitt, E. (2022) ‘Biden Approves Plan to Redeploy Several Hundred Ground Forces Into Somalia’, The New York Times, 16 May. Available at https://www.nytimes.com/2022/05/16/us/politics/biden-military-somalia.html (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Schipani, A. (2023) ‘Somalia Rebuilds: “The Glass Is Now Half-Full”’, Financial Times, 15 April. Available at https://www.ft.com/content/0b968db2-2b34-482b-8ab0-946c2d2cceb4 (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Security Council Report (2022) ‘Somalia: Vote to Renew the Sanctions Regime’, Security Council Report, 16 November. Available at https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/whatsinblue/2022/11/somalia-vote-to-renew-the-sanctions-regime.php (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Segall, M. (2022) ‘The Revolutionary Guards’ Navy Expands Its Activity in the Red Sea and Mediterranean Region’, Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, 10 July. Available at https://jcpa.org/the-revolutionary-guards-navy-expands-its-activity-in-the-red-sea-and-mediterranean-region/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Ship Technology (2022) ‘DP World to Expand and Upgrade Port of Bosaso, Somalia’, Ship Technology, 9 December. Available at https://www.ship-technology.com/news/dp-world-upgrade-port-of-bosaso-somalia/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Sievers, L. and Daws, S. (2014) The Procedure of the UN Security Council. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Fourth Edition. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/actrade/9780199685295.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19968-529-5

Sperber, A. (2022) ‘Revealed: CIA-Trained Militia Used US-Made Weapons in Deadly Attack’, Vice, 20 May. Available at https://www.vice.com/en/article/5dg7wn/puntland-security-force-somalia-cia (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Sun, Y. (2018) ‘The Political Significance of China’s Latest Commitments to Africa’, Brookings, 12 September. Available at https://www.brookings.edu/articles/the-political-significance-of-chinas-latest-commitments-to-africa/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

TASS (2023) ‘Somalia's Delegation Arrives in St. Petersburg for Russia-Africa Summit’, TASS, 26 July. Available at https://tass.com/politics/1652009 (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Telci, I. N. and Horoz, T. Ö. (2018) ‘Military Bases in the Foreign Policy of the United Arab Emirates’, Insight Turkey, 20(2), pp. 143-166. DOI: https://doi.org/10.25253/99.2018202.11, ISSN 2564-7717

The EastAfrican (2019) ‘Kenya Recalls Envoy, Expels Somali Ambassador’, The EastAfrican, 16 February. Available at https://theeastafrican.co.ke/tea/news/east-africa/kenya-recalls-envoy-expels-somali-ambassador-1412536 (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

The EastAfrican (2022) ‘Somali President Hassan Mohamud Makes Second Visit to Eritrea’, The EastAfrican, 11 November. Available at https://theeastafrican.co.ke/tea/news/east-africa/somali-president-mohamud-visits-eritrea-4016978 (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Times of Israel Staff (2022) ‘Report: Somali President Plans Talks with Parliament on Possible Ties with Israel’, Times of Israel, 9 July. Available at https://www.timesofisrael.com/report-somali-president-plans-talks-with-parliament-on-possible-ties-with-israel/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

United Nations (2024) ‘Data: Black Sea Grain Initiative’, United Nations, 16 January. Available at https://www.un.org/en/black-sea-grain-initiative/data (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

United Nations News (2022) ‘Somalia: “We Cannot Wait for Famine to Be Declared; We Must Act Now”’, United Nations News, 5 August. Available at https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/08/1124072 (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Wario, H. (2023) ‘Kenya’s Rise in al-Shabaab Attacks Calls for Localised Solutions’, ISS, 12 July. Available at https://issafrica.org/iss-today/kenyas-rise-in-al-shabaab-attacks-calls-for-localised-solutions (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Wright, H. (2022) ‘Uganda, Somalia Adopt MoU on Defence Cooperation’, Chimp Reports, 6 August. Available at https://chimpreports.com/uganda-somalia-adopt-mou-on-defence-cooperation/ (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Xinhua (2021) ‘China, Somalia Ink Deal to Modernize Media Institutions’, FOCAC, 12 July. Available at

http://www.focac.org/eng/zfgx_4/rwjl/202112/t20211207_10463305.htm (Accessed: 20 May 2024)

Downloads

Published

2024-07-01 — Updated on 2024-07-02

Versions

How to Cite

Gotteland, M. . (2024). Somalia’s Foreign Relations in the Context of the Latest Offensive Against Al Shabaab. Journal of Central and Eastern European African Studies, 3(4), 58–86. https://doi.org/10.59569/jceeas.2023.3.4.269 (Original work published July 1, 2024)